1	ORGANIZATION OF LIFE (HOW TO BUILD A HUMAN) ATOMS ® MOLECULES ® MACROMOLECULES ® CELLS ® TISSUES ® ORGANS ® ORGAN SYSTEMS ® ORGANISM (HUMAN) ® POPULATION ® COMMUNITY ® ECOSYSTEM ® BIOSPHERE
2	HEIRARCHY OF LIFE
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4	PRIMARY TISSUE TYPES HISTOLOGY study of tissues MUSCLE TISSUE NERVOUS TISSUE EPITHELIAL TISSUE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
5	PHYSIOLOGY The study of the integrated functions of the vital systems of living organisms This study could be of bacteria, plants, animals or humans
6	HOMEOSTASIS
7	HOMEOSTASIS MAINTENANCE OF A RELATIVELY STABLE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT Homeostasis is essential for the survival of each cell, and each cell, through its specialized activities, contributes as part of a body system to the maintenance of the internal environment shared by all cells
8	PARAMETERS THAT ARE HOMEOSTATICALLY REGULATED BLOOD OXYGEN CONCENTRATION (~200 ml/L in arteries) PULSE-OXYIMETER (~ 99-100%) TOTAL BODY WATER (TBW) = 0.6 x Body Weight BLOOD GLUCOSE CONCENTRATION (~ 70-100 mg/dl) BLOOD/BODY NUTRIENT LEVEL (Carbohydrates, Amino Acids, Fatty Acids, Vitamins, Minerals, etc.) BODY TEMPERATURE (~ 37 ° C OR ~ 98-99 ° F)
9	PARAMETERS THAT ARE HOMEOSTATICALLY REGULATED BLOOD CARBON DIOXIDE LEVEL (~ 480 - 520 ml/L) BLOOD pH = ACIDITY/ALKALINITY (~ 7.4) SALT AND OTHER ELECTROLYTE CONCENTRATION (Na⁺, K⁺, Ca⁺, Cl^-, Mg⁺, H⁺, HCO₃^-, PO₄, etc.) BLOOD VOLUME (related to total body water) plasma volume, salt and water balance BLOOD PRESSURE related to blood volume, cardiac output, & total peripheral resistance METABOLIC WASTE CONCENTRATION IN BLOOD urea, hormone metabolites, drug metabolites, etc.
10	ORGAN SYSTEMS NERVOUS SYSTEM SKELETAL SYSTEM MUSCULAR SYSTEM CARDIOVASCULAR (CIRCULATORY) SYSTEM RESPIRATORY SYSTEM LYMPHATIC SYSTEM IMMUNE SYSTEM URINARY (EXCRETORY) SYSTEM DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ENDOCRINE SYSTEM REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
11	ORGAN SYSTEMS
12	NEGATIVE FEEDBACK Most homeostatically controlled parameters in the body are regulated by negative feedback. Negative feedback occurs when a change in a controlled variable triggers a response that opposes the change, driving the variable in the opposite direction of the initial change.
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14	POSITIVE FEEDBACK This type of control mechanism is relatively rare in the body because it moves the controlled variable even farther from a steady state. Positive feedback continually enhances the output so that the controlled variable continues to be moved in the direction of the initial change Positive feedback reinforces the change in the same direction. Such action would be comparable to the heat generated by a furnace triggering the thermostat to call for even more heat output from the furnace so that the room temperature would continually rise. Examples = Mechanisms of Ovulation and Parturition (Birth)
15	PATHOPHYSIOLOGY As we proceed through the course, we will discuss a number of different pathophysiological conditions (diseases and abnormal states) which illustrate physiological mechanisms Pathophysiology refers to the study of the abnormal functioning of the body (altered physiology) associated with disease.
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17	PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
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19	ORGANIC MOLECULES
20	CARBOHYDRATES – MONOSACCHARDIES & DISACCHARIDE
21	STRUCTURE OF GLYCOGEN
22	POLYSACCHARIDES = many simple sugar units linked together
23	MONOGLYCERIDE = one molecule of glycerol linked to one fatty acid molecule
24	LIPIDS - TRIGLYCERIDES (FATS)
25	FAT = FATTY ACID TRIGLYCERIDE = one molecule of glycerol linked to three fatty acid molecules
26	CHOLESTEROL = a different type of lipid
27	LIPOSOME = the double layer of lipids that helps form cell membranes to separate a cell from other cells and the environment
28	STRUCTURE OF AN AMINO ACID = the building block of proteins
29	AMINO ACIDS ARE LINKED TOGETHER BY PEPTIDE BONDS TO FORM PROTEINS
30	PROTEINS/PEPTIDES (PRIMARY STRUCTURE)
31	LEVELS OF PROTEIN STRUCTURE = amino acid chains fold up in specific ways at the molecular level to give the protein an overall specific three dimensional shape and thus a specific function
32	MUSCLE IS MADE MOSTLY OF PROTEIN
33	HUMAN MUSCLE FIBERS
34	HAIR IS MADE MOSTLY OF PROTEIN
35	AN ENZYME = A BIOLOGICAL CATALYST MOST ENZYMES ARE PROTEINS
36	DNA (DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID)
37	A DNA NUCLEOTIDE = THE BUILDING BLOCK OF A LARGER DNA MOLECULE
38	A CHAIN OF DNA NUCLEOTIDES
39	THE DNA DOUBLE HELIX = TWO STRANDS OF DNA NUCLEOTIDES BONDED TOGETHER
40	HORMONES Hormone = a chemical (molecule) released from one cell or tissue that regulates the function of another cell or tissue. Hormones are always transported in the blood.
41	TYPES OF HORMONES BASED ON THEIR CHEMICAL STRUCTURE STEROIDS = have a structure similar to cholesterol PROTEINS = chains of amino acids FATTY ACIDS = look somewhat like fat AMINES = contain a special nitrogen group
42	EXAMPLES OF HORMONES STEROIDS Testosterone, Estrogen, Progesterone PROTEINS LH, FSH, GnRH (these regulate the gonads) FATTY ACIDS Prostaglandins (these cause cramps) AMINES Adrenaline, Serotonin
43	LIGHT MICROSCOPE
44	ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
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46	ANIMAL (HUMAN) CELL
47	CELL BIOLOGY
48	AN ANIMAL CELL
49	CELLS ARE SMALL – THEY NEED A LARGE SURFACE AREA FOR THE TRANSPORT OF NUTRIENTS IN AND WASTES OUT
50	AN ANIMAL CELL SHOWING ORGANELLES ORGANELLE = A COMPARTMENTALIZED STRUCTURE IN A CELL THAT PERFORMS A SPECIFIC FUNCTION FOR THE CELL
51	A BACTERIA CELL = NO CELL NUCLEUS THESE TYPES OF CELLS ARE PROKARYOTIC
52	E. COLI = A BACTERIA FOUND IN YOUR INTESTINES
53	CELL NUCLEUS AND ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
54	CELL NUCLEI
55	THE ROUGH ER MAKES PROTEINS THAT WILL BE RELEASED FROM CELLS
56	MITOCHONDRIA = MAKES CELL ENERGY IN THE FORM OF A MOLECULE CALLED ATP
57	CELL CYTOSKELETON = PROTEIN FIBERS THAT GIVE THE CELL ITS SHAPE
58	FLAGELLA = SPERM TAIL
59	ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
60	CELLS DIVIDING IN AN EARLY EMBRYO
61	CHROMOSOMES IN THE CELL NUCLEUS CHROMOSOMES ARE MADE OF DNA
62	CHROMOSOMES DUPLICATE BEFORE CELLS DIVIDE
63	THE CELL CYCLE = THE DAY-TO-DAY LIFE OF A CELL
64	THE HUMAN LIFE CYCLE
65	A DIVIDING CELL
66	SKIN CELLS ARE CONSTANTLY DIVIDING
67	BREAST CELLS NORMAL CANCEROUS
68	CELL DIVISION - MITOSIS
69	CELL DIVISION - MITOSIS
70	INTERPHASE
71	PROPHASE
72	SPINDLE FIBERS FORM DURING CELL DIVISION TO MOVE CHROMOSOMES
73	INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT OF CHROMOSOMES
74	MOUSE TRAITS
75	CROSSING OVER = Chromosomes break off and re-attach to recombine genes between homologous chromosomes = OCCURS DURING PROPHASE
76	CROSSING OVER OF CHROMOSOMES CREATES RECOMBINED CHROMOSOMES
77	METAPHASE
78	ANAPHASE
79	TELOPHASE
80	CELL DIVISION - MITOSIS
81	MEIOSIS – MEIOSIS I
82	MEIOSIS – MEIOSIS II
83	COMPARISON OF MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
84	DOWN’S SYNDROME
85	MATERNAL AGE vs. RATE OF DOWN’S SYNDROME
86	KARYOTYPING = a technique to visualize the chromosomes and number of chromosomes in a dividing cell
87	HUMAN FEMALE KARYOTYPE
88	HUMAN MALE KARYOTYPE
89	NONDISJUNCTION = failure of chromosomes to separate during meiosis
90	FERTILIZATION AFTER NONDISJUNCTION IN AN EGG
91	DOWN’S SYNDROME KARYOTYPE
92	Amniocentesis = sampling the amnionic fluid around the fetus for fetal cells
93	Chorionic Villi Sampling = sampling the placental cells which have the same DNA as fetal cells
94	KLINEFELTER’S SYNDROME (XXY) = due to nondisjunction of sex chromosomes
95	TURNER’S SYNDROME (XO) = due to nondisjunction of sex chromosomes
96	THE HUMAN LIFE CYCLE
97	DNA = DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
98	DNA BASES
99	RNA = RIBONUCLEIC ACID THIS IS AN RNA NUCLEOTIDE
100	DNA FORMING A DOUBLE HELIX
101	DNA REPLICATES (IT IS COPIED) TO MAKE NEW CHROMOSOMES BEFORE CELL DIVISION OCCURS (during S phase)
102	DNA DUPLICATION = COPYING CHROMOSOMES
103	DNA IS USED AS THE BLUEPRINT TO MAKE PROTEINS
104	GENE = A SEQUENCE OF DNA THAT CODES FOR THE AMINO ACID SEQUENCE IN A PROTEIN
105	THE GENETIC CODE = each triplet of DNA bases codes for a triplet of RNA bases = a CODON
106	DNA IS TRANSCRIBED INTO RNA RNA IS TRANSLATED INTO A PROTEIN
107	CHANGES IN THE DNA CAUSE CHANGES IN THE RNA AND THUS IN THE AMINO ACID SEQUENCE OF A PROTEIN
108	Sickle Cell Anemia
109	Sickle Red Blood Cells
110	Normal vs. Sickle Red Blood Cells
111	SICKLE CELL ANEMIA IS CAUSED BY A SINGLE CHANGE IN ONE DNA BASE WHICH CAUSES A SINGLE AMINO ACID TO CHANGE IN HEMOGLOBIN